Resumen Con el aumento de la masa de las máquinas y el tránsito repetido se han ido incrementando los problemas de compactación. Además, frecuentemente se transitan los lotes en condiciones de baja capacidad portante generando una compactación superficial del suelo importante (huelleado). Se realizó un ensayo para determinar la influencia del número de pasadas y de la humedad del suelo en el momento del tránsito sobre la compactación del suelo. Se realizaron 1, 3 y 10 pasadas de un tractor con el suelo a dos contenidos de humedad (34 % = húmedo y 24 % = parcialmente seco (PS)). Se midieron la profundidad de huella, la humedad gravimétrica, la resistencia a la penetración y la producción de materia seca del pastizal natural como variables respuesta en dos instancias: inicial (24 h después de una precipitación) y final (luego de las PS). Adicionalmente, en la instancia final se determinó la conductividad hidráulica a distintas tensiones, distribución de tamaño de poros y densidad aparente (DAP). El mayor huelleado se produjo con el tránsito en húmedo y con el incremento del número de pasadas. En los tratamientos con tránsito se alcanzaron valores de resistencia a la penetración que limitan o detienen el crecimiento radical y en consecuencia comprometen el rendimiento del cultivo. Se observó un aumento de la DAP y una disminución de la macroporosidad ante el tránsito repetido especialmente en condiciones secas (P<0,05). El tratamiento de mayor número de pasadas en PS fue el que tuvo menor rendimiento de materia seca.

Abstract With the increase in machinery mass and repeated traffic, compaction problems have arised. In addition, plots are frequently trafficked in conditions of low bearing capacity, generating a significant compaction of the superficial soil (tracks). A trial was carried out to determine the influence of the number of passes and soil moisture during transit on soil compaction. Tractor passes (1, 3 and 10) were done with the soil at two moisture contents (34% = wet and 24% = partially dry). Track depth, gravimetric moisture content, penetration resistance, and dry matter production were measured on a natural grassland at two moments: initial (24 h after a rainfall event) and final (when the soil PS). Additionally, hydraulic conductivity at different water pressure heads, pore size distribution and bulk density (DAP) were determined at the final measure. The greatest track depth occurred with wet traffic and with the increase in the number of passes. In the treatments with traffic, values of penetration resistance that limit or stop root growth and consequently compromise crop yield were reached. The treatment with the highest number of partially dry passes had the lowest dry matter yield. An increase in DAP and a decrease in macroporosity were observed as a result of repeated traffic, especially in dry conditions (P<0.05). The treatment with the highest number of passes in PS was the one with the lowest yield of dry matter.

RESUMEN La inclusión de cultivos de cobertura (CC) puede mejorar el impacto de la siembra directa (NT), derivando en una mayor calidad física del suelo (SPQ). Los objetivos de este trabajo fueron: i- determinar la SPQ en diferentes momentos del ciclo de cultivo durante el primer año después de la introducción de un cultivo de cobertura (CC) de centeno y vicia, en comparación con barbecho desnudo (BF); y ii- medir el impacto de este cultivo de cobertura en el contenido de agua del suelo durante el primer año luego de su introducción, en comparación con BF. Se determinaron indicadores de la SPQ, derivados de la curva de retención hídrica (SWRC) y de ensayos de infiltración in-situ en diferentes momentos durante el primer año luego de la inclusión de un CC. El experimento fue realizado en un Argiudol abrúptico, fino, illítico, térmico. En ambos tratamientos el cultivo de verano fue maíz. El tratamiento CC, en comparación con el tratamiento BF, mostró mayores valores de, agua disponible (PAWC) e índice de Dexter (S), y menores valores de densidad aparente (BD). Se observó una mayor capacidad de campo (FC) bajo CC durante el ciclo de crecimiento del maíz. Por otro lado, no se observaron diferencias entre tratamientos para Pmac, exhibiendo las mismas tendencias temporales. Los resultados muestran que la inclusión de un CC mejora la capacidad de retener agua y contrarrestar procesos de compactación. Al final del ciclo de cultivo, CC mostró mayores valores de macroporosidad conductora de agua (εma) y conectividad de la macroporosidad (Cwma). Se observaron mayores valores de humedad durante el ciclo de cultivo del maíz en el tratamiento CC, mostrando que la inclusión de un CC no tiene un efecto negativo sobre el contenido de agua en el horizonte superficial. Nuestros resultados muestran que la inclusión de CC son una oportunidad de intensificar las secuencias de cultivos en la Región Pampeana Argentina, orientado a mejorar el impacto del sistema de NT.

ABSTRACT Integrating cover crops (CC) in the crop sequence could lead to an enhancement of the no-tillage (NT) performance improving soil physical quality (SPQ). The objectives of this work were: i- to determine the SPQ on different moments of the crop cycle during the first year after incorporation of cover cropping (barley and vetch) (CC), as compared with bare fallow (BF); and ii- to measure the impact of cover crops on the top soil water content during the first year of its introduction. SPQ indicators were determined from the soil water retention curve (SWRC) and in-situ infiltration data in different dates during the first year after inclusion of CC. The experiment was carried out in a fine, illitic, thermic abruptic Argiudoll. For both treatments, maize was sown as summer crop. CC management showed higher values of plant available water content (PAWC) and Dexter index (S), and lower values of bulk density (BD) as compared with BF. Higher values of field capacity (FC) under CC were observed during the maize growing season. On the other hand, no differences between treatments were observed for Pmac. These results show that the inclusion of CC under NT management improves the soil capacity to retain water and counteract compaction processes under NT. At the end of the crop cycle, higher values of water-conducting macroporosity (εma) and macropore connectivity (Cwma) were observed under CC. Higher values of soil water content during the maize growing period were observed under CC, showing that the inclusion of CC has no negative effects on the top soil water content. Our results show that the inclusion of CC is an opportunity for intensify crop sequences in the Argentinean Pampas Region, oriented to enhance the performance of NT.

ABSTRACT The massive adoption of no-tillage (NT), along with the simplification of the cropping sequences has led to physical and chemical degradation of soils. To recover degraded soils, cover crops have been proposed as an alternative to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) and to improve soil physical quality (SPQ). This study aimed (i) to determine the content of SOC and its physical and chemical fractions at different layers and positions, in a soil with a soybean crop under NT with and without winter cover crops, and (ii) to determine SPQ indicators in a soybean crop under NT with and without winter cover crops. Measures and samples were made on a field experiment in a typical Argiudoll of the Argentinean Pampas. Soil organic carbon, coarse and fine particulate organic carbon (POCc and POCf), mineral associated organic carbon (MOC), fulvic acids (FA), humic acids (HA), and humins (H) were determined. Soil physical quality indicators determined were: soil bulk density and total porosity from field samples, and saturated hydraulic conductivity, water-conducting macro and mesoporosity, and total porosity connectivity from field water infiltration data. After eight years, cover crops did not cause any observable change in whole SOC content, but significant differences were observed for some SOC fractions. Humic acids and POCc had 40 and 25 % increases, respectively, in the cover crop treatment. Mineral associated organic carbon and H decreased by 9 and 7 % in cover crop treatment. Soil physical quality did not improve after eight years of cover crops. This can be related to degradation processes after 20 years of soybean monoculture under NT, and to the low ability of Argiudolls to recover from physical degradation.

ABSTRACT Simulation models are efficient tools to predict the fate of different solutes in agricultural soils. This work aimed to compare measured and predicted glyphosate and AMPA (aminomethyl phosphonic acid; its main metabolite) contents in a soil under no-tillage (NT), and conventional tillage (CT); and to compare the predictions considering constant and time-variable hydraulic properties. Additionally, we evaluated the ability of the model to predict glyphosate and AMPA accumulation during the crop cycle. Hydrus 1-D code was used to predict the glyphosate and AMPA dynamics, considering constant and time-variable hydraulic properties during the studied crop cycle. In general, the prediction of glyphosate and AMPA distribution along the soil profile using HYDRUS 1-D was satisfactory; however, an overestimation of both compounds was observed in the first 0.20 m of the soil probably because of the preferential flow. Additionally, the accumulation process of glyphosate and AMPA in the soil during the crop cycle was underestimated by HYDRUS 1-D, as compared with the observed field data. Simulated data show that higher values of K0 increase the risk of glyphosate and AMPA vertical transport. The inclusion of temporal variation of hydraulic properties in glyphosate and AMPA simulation did not improve the simulation performance, showing that the model is more sensitive to the parameters related to the solutes. From the obtained results, HYDRUS 1-D code allowed to predict glyphosate and AMPA dynamics reasonably well in agricultural soils of the Argentinean Pampas region and is a potential model to give support in the analysis of the environmental risk of leaching and soil contamination.

ABSTRACT: Determination of soil physical quality (SPQ) is very important because it is related to many important soil processes. However, it is not clear which indicators should be considered in this evaluation, and information about temporal variation of SPQ under different soil tillage systems is scarce. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of no tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) on temporal variation of capacity SPQ indicators [bulk density (BD), macroporosity (Pmac), air capacity (AC), plant available water capacity (PAWC), relative field capacity (RFC), Dexter's (S), and structural stability index (SSI)], and dynamic SPQ indicators [field saturated hydraulic conductivity (K0), water-conducting macroporosity (εma), and mesoporosity (εme); and pore continuity indexes based on water flux of total porosity (CWTP), of macroporosity (CWmac), and of mesoporosity (Cwmes)]. Additionally, the effect of the soil management system on corn yield was evaluated. Measurements and determinations were made at four different moments/cropping stages in the corn growing season (BS: before seeding; V6: six leaf stage; R5: physiological maturity; and AH: after harvest). Capacity SPQ indicators were derived from the soil water retention curve determined using sand box and pressure chambers, and dynamic SPQ indicators were derived from field infiltration data measured using a tension disc infiltrometer. Most capacity SPQ indicators were affected by the moment/cropping stage in which samples were taken, but followed similar trends and had similar values under both treatments, particularly in the AH stage. Dynamic SPQ indicators varied differently during the growing season depending on the management system. Under NT, most dynamic indicators increase from BS to V6 and decrease again at AH, whereas under CT, they follow a different trend, decreasing from BS to V6, remaining constant until R5, and increasing at AH. Corn yield was lower under CT (NT: 10,939 kg ha−1; CT: 8,265 kg ha−1). These results emphasize the need to include dynamic SPQ indicators, and their temporal variation when evaluating cropping systems with the aim of modeling crop yields. The capacity SPQ indicators were not able to distinguish between treatments.

Soil water diffusivity (D) determination is important as this hydraulic property is fundamental in order to characterize unsaturated water and solute transport in soils. Determination of this property is complex, time consuming, and requires quite expensive instruments. The objectives of this work were: i) to propose a simpler and more robust method based on an improvement of Whisler et al. (1968) to determine the soil water diffusivity function and ii) to determine D and sorptivity (S) in a soil under different management systems. Soil A-horizon was sampled under three management systems (T1: Natural grassland, T2: Polyphitic Pasture, and T3: no tillage). The samples were sieved through a 2 mm mesh, and afterwards packed into 70 cm long and 10 cm diameter columns. The columns were analyzed under horizontal infiltration and D was determined as a function of soil water content that varied in function of time for fixed positions along the column, these latter were obtained from low cost soil moisture capacitance sensors. The results showed that the proposed methodology was valid for the studied soils. The soil management system significantly affected D and S values. D values corresponding to T3 were greater compared to T1 and T2 (D values ranged between 0.00033 and 0.0321 cm² s-1) implying that these soils had the ability to transmit water easier under non-saturated conditions than under grazing. In conclusion, the proposed methodology in this work allowed to determine D in a simple and low cost way, and to analyze the influence of soil management systems on this property.

La determinación de la Difusividad (D) del agua en el suelo es importante ya que caracteriza el flujo de agua en condiciones no saturadas. Estimarla es complejo, ya que consume tiempo y generalmente se necesita equipo costoso para hacerlo. Los objetivos de este trabajo fueron: 1- proponer una mejora en el método de Whisler et al. (1968) haciéndolo más simple y robusto, aportando herramientas para probar la validez de la ecuación de Richards en su forma de difusividad y el cumplimiento de los supuestos del modelo y 2- Determinar la D en función del contenido de humedad (θ) y S en un suelo bajo distintas situaciones productivas. Para esto, se tomaron muestras del horizonte superficial de tres lotes contiguos bajo distintos sistemas de manejo (T1: Pastizal natural, T2: Pastura polifítica y T3: Siembra Directa). Las muestras se secaron, tamizaron por 2 mm y se empaquetaron en columnas de PVC de 70 cm de largo y 10 cm de diámetro interno. Las columnas de suelo se sometieron a infiltración horizontal y se determinó la D a distintos valores de θ y la S. Se utilizaron sensores de humedad de capacitancia de bajo costo en puntos fijos de la columna. Los resultados encontrados muestran la validez de la metodología para los suelos estudiados. En cuanto a la influencia del manejo, se encontraron diferencias significativas en los valores de D entre los tratamientos. El T3 presentó mayores valores de D a todas las humedades, y de S, que T1 y T2 (los valores de D estuvieron entre 0,00033 y 0,0321 cm² s-1), lo que indica mayor facilidad para transmitir agua en condiciones no saturadas en el manejo agrícola, lo cual se atribuyó a la influencia negativa del pisoteo animal. La metodología propuesta permitió estimar de manera consistente, simple y de bajo costo la D y estudiar su relación con el manejo del suelo.

ABSTRACT The concept of soil physical quality (SPQ) is currently under discussion, and an agreement about which soil physical properties should be included in the SPQ characterization has not been reached. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the ability of SPQ indicators based on static and dynamic soil properties to assess the effects of two loosening treatments (chisel plowing to 0.20 m [ChT] and subsoiling to 0.35 m [DL]) on a soil under NT and to compare the performance of static- and dynamic-based SPQ indicators to define soil proper soil conditions for soybean yield. Soil sampling and field determinations were carried out after crop harvest. Soil water retention curve was determined using a tension table, and field infiltration was measured using a tension disc infiltrometer. Most dynamic SPQ indicators (field saturated hydraulic conductivity, K0, effective macroporosity, εma, total connectivity and macroporosity indexes [CwTP and Cwmac]) were affected by the studied treatments, and were greater for DL compared to NT and ChT (K0 values were 2.17, 2.55, and 4.37 cm h-1 for NT, ChT, and DL, respectively). However, static SPQ indicators (calculated from the water retention curve) were not capable of distinguishing effects among treatments. Crop yield was significantly lower for the DL treatment (NT: 2,400 kg ha-1; ChT: 2,358 kg ha-1; and DL: 2,105 kg ha1), in agreement with significantly higher values of the dynamic SPQ indicators, K0, εma, CwTP, and Cwmac, in this treatment. The results support the idea that SPQ indicators based on static properties are not capable of distinguishing tillage effects and predicting crop yield, whereas dynamic SPQ indicators are useful for distinguishing tillage effects and can explain differences in crop yield when used together with information on weather conditions. However, future studies, monitoring years with different weather conditions, would be useful for increasing knowledge on this topic.

A compactação do solo tem sido reconhecida como um problema grave na agricultura mecanizada, influenciando em várias propriedades e processos do solo. Poucos são os relatos dos efeitos dessa compactação ao longo do tempo; a evolução da compactação do solo tem sido demonstrada por um número limitado de atributos do solo. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar a persistência dos efeitos da compactação do solo (três tratamentos com tráfego de máquina agrícola, sendo: T0, sem tráfego; T3, com três passadas de trator; e T5, cinco passadas de trator) na configuração do sistema poroso, utilizando determinações estáticas e dinâmicas; e determinar as mudanças na orientação do sistema poroso do solo após a compactação, utilizando os valores de condutividade hidráulica do solo saturado, em amostras coletadas na vertical e horizontal. O tráfego causou alterações em todos os indicadores dinâmicos estudados (condutividade hidráulica do solo saturado, K0; e macro e mesoporosidade efetiva do solo, εma e εme), com valores significativamente baixos de K0, εma e εme no tratamento T5. Já os valores dos indicadores estáticos como a densidade do solo, a porosidade total derivada do solo e a macroporosidade total (θma) não apresentaram variação significativa entre os tratamentos. Esse é um indicativo que o tráfego de máquinas não influenciou na alteração dessas variáveis após dois anos. Já na orientação do sistema poroso do solo, mesmo em T0, ocorreram maiores alterações em K0 medidas nas amostras coletadas na vertical do que os valores medidos na horizontal, sendo mais relacionados à presença de bioporos na vertical e à isotropia de K0 nos tratamentos onde houve tráfego de máquinas. Assim, os resultados evidenciaram que os indicadores dinâmicos são mais sensíveis aos efeitos da compactação e que, futuramente, os indicadores estáticos não serão utilizados como indicadores da compactação do solo, sem a necessidade do complemento de indicadores dinâmicos.

Soil compaction has been recognized as a severe problem in mechanized agriculture and has an influence on many soil properties and processes. Yet, there are few studies on the long-term effects of soil compaction, and the development of soil compaction has been shown through a limited number of soil parameters. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the persistence of soil compaction effects (three traffic treatments: T0, without traffic; T3, three tractor passes; and T5, five tractor passes) on pore system configuration, through static and dynamic determinations; and to determine changes in soil pore orientation due to soil compaction through measurement of hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil in samples taken vertically and horizontally. Traffic led to persistent changes in all the dynamic indicators studied (saturated hydraulic conductivity, K0; effective macro- and mesoporosity, εma and εme), with significantly lower values of K0, εma, and εme in the T5 treatment. The static indicators of bulk density (BD), derived total porosity (TP), and total macroporosity (θma) did not vary significantly among the treatments. This means that machine traffic did not produce persistent changes on these variables after two years. However, the orientation of the soil pore system was modified by traffic. Even in T0, there were greater changes in K0 measured in the samples taken vertically than horizontally, which was more related to the presence of vertical biopores, and to isotropy of K0 in the treatments with machine traffic. Overall, the results showed that dynamic indicators are more sensitive to the effects of compaction and that, in the future, static indicators should not be used as compaction indicators without being complemented by dynamic indicators.

Seja C uma desordem (família de Sperner) e seja A sua matriz de incidência. Se o sistema linear x > 0; x A < 1 tem a propriedade do arredondamento inteiro, fornecemos a descrição do módulo canônico e do a-invariante de certos subaneis monomiais associados a C. Se a desordem é um grafo conexo, descreve-se quando o supra-mencionado sistema linear tem a propriedade do arredondamento inteiro em termos combinatórios e algébricos, usando a teoria dos grafos e a teoria das álgebras de Rees. Como consequência, mostra-se que a álgebra de Rees estendida do ideal de arestas de um grafo bipartido é um anel de Gorenstein se e somente se o grafo é de altura pura.

Let C be a clutter and let A be its incidence matrix. If the linear system x > 0; x A < 1 has the integer rounding property, we give a description of the canonical module and the a-invariant of certain normal subrings associated to C. If the clutter is a connected graph, we describe when the aforementioned linear system has the integer rounding property in combinatorial and algebraic terms using graph theory and the theory of Rees algebras. As a consequence we show that the extended Rees algebra of the edge ideal of a bipartite graph is Gorenstein if and only if the graph is unmixed.

En esta nota nosotros presentamos una caracterización combinatoria de todos los grafos bipartitos no-mezcladas.

In this note we give a combinatorial characterization of all the unmixed bipartite graphs.